RBSE Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 The Social Contract Theory and Evolutionary Theory

RBSE Solutions for Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 The Social Contract Theory and Evolutionary Theory

Rajasthan Board RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 The Social Contract Theory and Evolutionary Theory

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Textual Questions

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Write the name of Hobbes’ book.
Answer:
Leviathan.

Question 2.
What name has rousseau given to his sovereign?
Answer:
General Will.

Question 3.
What type of natural state has been described by Locke?
Answer:
Locke has described the natural state as a state of peace, harmony, mutual cooperation and security.

Question 4.
Mention the main elements of Evolutionary theory.
Answer:
The main elements of evolutionary theory are:

1. Basic social nature
2. Blood relation
3. Religion
4. Power
5. Economic Necessities
6. Political Awareness.

Question 5.
Which are the basis tendencies of human behaviour as per Rousseau ?
Answer:

• Liberty
• Self – reliance.

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What was the General will of Rousseau?
Answer:
The most important element of Rousseau’s philosophy is ‘General will’. Through this, Rousseau presented the solution to freedom, interests of the governance, duties, individualism, and completeness, etc. General will paved the way of public dominance and democracy. In order to clarify the ‘General will’, Rousseau described two types of will:

1. Practical will
2. Ideal will

1.  0Practical will:
This is the will of an individual based on selfishness. This is such a will wherein a person thinks of any subject under the inspiration of his personal interest. This ‘will’ is emotional, selfish, narrow, biased, discriminate, changeable, unstable and ambitious.

2. Ideal will:
This ‘will’ is based on charity of an individual. This is such a will which is beneficial to the entire society. In it, there is a domination of social interests over individual interests. It is not necessary that ‘General will’ is a will of majority. In fact, general will is the combination of all the ‘wills’ prevalent in the society. If an individual has ideal will, then it too will be termed as General will. In this way, Rousseau regards the real place of sovereignty in the combination of all, that is sovereign and that is nontransferable, inseparable, omnipresent and unlimited supreme authority.

Question 2.
What are the views of Hobbes in respect of human nature?
Answer:
Human nature according to Thomas Hobbes : Thomas Hobbes was a political thinker of England. In his book, ‘Leviathan’, he propagated the social contract theory. Hobbes, in his book, has described the negative nature of humans. According to him, a person is basically an unsocial creature, habitually solitary, selfish, arrogant and quarrelsome. He loves power.

He indulges in strife for his happiness and fulfillment of his interests and for success in this strife, he seeks refuge in lies, deception, violence, etc. According to Hobbes, a person, has good qualities too but these are not the part of his nature. In this way, according to Thomas Hobbes, a person was basically poor, mean and wild in nature.

Question 3.
What is the contribution of religion in the development of the state?
Answer:
Contribution of religion in the development of the state : Religion plays a vital role in the development of a state. Like blood relations, religion has also worked to connect primitive person and society. People having same blood relation have similar qualities, religious beliefs and faiths. In ancient time, religion had two dimensions, ancestor worship and nature worship.

Because of ancestor worship, homogeneity and spirit of brotherhood remained intact. Those who had the same deity had relations of unity. Religion provided the power of organisation to the people. In ancient times, religion gave a sense of civility to those who were uncivilized and developed a psyche of discipline in them.

In ancient time, religion bound the scattered people in a thread of unity and infused a feeling of unity and discipline in them. The relation between state and religion has not been in ancient time only. Instead, it is still very much present in modern time also. A deep rapport of religion with polities is quite visible in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, and Afghanistan, etc.

Question 4.
How was a human in the natural state of Locke?
Answer:
John Locke was a political thinker of England, he propagated the social contract theory of the origin of the state. He proposed the presence of peace, cordiality, mutual cooperation and safety in natural state. Because of beneficent and rational behaviour of an individual, natural state was peaceful. All the persons were equal in the natural state.

This was a state of freedom, not bound and despotic when the people would comply with natural laws and morality. There was no system of accepted explanation of natural rules. At that time, there was only one natural law, “You should behave with others the way you want others t behave with you. In this way, Locke described the “natural state” as a state of morality, social and dutiful perceptions.

Question 5.
What has been the contribution of force in the development of the state?
Answer:
Contribution of force in the development of the state:
There has been a considerable contribution of force in the development of the state. War is a means to transform power into practical form. Political thinker Jacques says that, “War gave birth to the king.” In ancient time, decisions were based on power. The person or ‘tribe’, being defeated in the war, had to accept subjugation. The role of power in the development of a state is also expressed by the activities of war and victory.

The fear of powerful enemy inspires small groups to unify. The basic nature of a human being is that he wants to establish his authority over others. When there was growth in agriculture, assets and property in the development of the state, then there were wars. In order to protect these, the people started to accept leadership of the powerful person. Because of power, there developed a cause of obeisance toward the ruler.

The devotion of the people consolidated the ruler and the development of the state took place. Force is an attribute for the origin of the state, but it cannot be regarded as the only reason. The other factors, such as blood relation, religion, economic considerations, basic social nature and political awareness, etc. also played their roles in the origin of the state.

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Essay Type Questions

Question 1.
Explain ‘General Will’ theory of Rousseau.
Answer:
Rousseau’s General Will theory:
The most important element of Rousseau’s political philosophy is the theory of General Will. When an individual surrenders his power through contract for the sake of the community, then, of course, ‘General Will’ replaces his individual will. In the context of General will, Rousseau has differentiated between ‘Practical will’ and ‘Ideal will’, which is as follows.

1. Practical will:
In general, the same meaning is derived out of‘practical will’ and ‘Ideal will’, but Rousseau has used these in quite different contexts. According to Rousseau, the practical will is such a part of human will whose goal is to accomplish individual interests and which is centric to the individual. Under this, there is a stress on personal selfishness over social interests.

2. Ideal will:
Contrary to it, ideal will is that will of a human which has a goal for the good of the entire society. According to this will, a human regards his own interests as inseparable part of social interests, and he thinks upon every situation against the backdrop of welfare of the entire society.

Formation of General Will:
According to Rousseau, when a question is put up before the people, then every individual mulls over the issue as per his choice and wisely and through the exchange of thoughts, by way of exchange of dialogue among the people, selfish desire gets suppressed, and there appears a formation of‘General Will’.

Characteristics of General Will:
The following are the main characteristics of Rousseau’s theory of ‘General Will’:
1. Public welfare:
General Will is public welfare. This is a blend of ideal wills. According to Rousseau, general will is always good and it is for the welfare of the entire society.

2. Integrity:
There is no mutual opposition in general will. It has unity in diversity.

3. Stable:
‘General Will’ is not a result of momentary and emotional impulses, instead it has a stable nature of human welfare.

4. Inseparable:
According to Rousseau, there can be no division of general will. As a creature cannot divide his personality without ending self, similarly, there can be no division of general will in political society.

5. Inalienable:
General will is inalienable. This cannot be transferred.

6. Based on rationality:
‘General will’ is based on logic and thought. This cannot be dictated, by individual selfishness.

7. Supreme:
General will is supreme and absolute. There cannot be any restriction on it by any person or group of persons, traditions, etc.

Importance of General Will:
Despite criticism, Rousseau’s theory of General Will is very important in politics, the reasons of which are given below:

• Rousseau’s General Will doctrine is very important for democracy, because it suggests that the basis of governance (power) is public acceptance.
• This theory provides importance to both, the individual, as well as the society.
• The theory of‘general will’ provides the inspiration of nationalism.
• This theory enunciates the concept of organic unity.

Question 2.
Write an essay on evolutionary theory of origin of state.
Answer:
The correct explanation of origin of state is done by the evolutionary theory. This theory is based on psychological, historical and sociological evidences. According to it, the state is neither an artificial institution, nor of a divine origin. This is a combined form of many factors, such as blood relation, religion, power, political awareness, economic activities, social life etc.

In this way, the state is developed for the sake of interests of all. According to this theory, the development process of the state has been going on since primitive period. Because of this continuous development, the state has acquired a form of nation state.

According to the, political thinker, Burgess, “A state is a continuous development of human society, beginning of which was in an incomplete and distorted form.” According to Leacock, “The origin of the state has been on the basis of continuous development of the state, wherein there are natural social nature, political awareness, blood relation religion, power and economical necessities, etc”.

1. Natural Social Nature:
The state is the result of basic natural social nature of a human being. Aristotle regards a person as social in natural form, and he says that a person can live outside the society if he is either God or an animal. The state came into existence for security of human life and it is meant for good life.

By this, it is clear that the state is a natural institution and it is the result of social nature of an individual. In general, a human being cannot live without state and society. With the development of civilization, social spirit got consolidated and its caused the development of social awareness. Simultaneously, there followed the development of political institutions and the state.

2. Blood Relation:
In primitive time, blood relation triggered the emotions of unity and organization. According to Henriman, ‘The modern research of the ancient history of the society indicates that the initial element to bind the people in a thread of unity was blood relation”. Maclver writes that “Blood relation gives birth to the society, and then the society gives birth to the state.”

3. Religion:
Like blood relation, religion has also played an important role in the development of the state. Blood relation and the state are two side of the same coin. According to Wilson, “In early society, religion and blood relation were the expression of unity”. According to Gettel, “Blood relation and religion are two sides of the same coin.” In the primitive time, religion infused the spirit of respect, obedience and morality in place of savage instinct in the people. In primitive period, another form of religion was the worship of deity.

The people started worshipping the things, which were beyond their understanding and this resulted in a source to bind the people in unity. The relation between the state and the religion existed since primitive time. Even today, we witness a deep relation between religion and politics in many countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, etc.

4. Force (Power):
In the evolution of state, the contribution of force has been enormous. War was the means to give practical form to power. The war gave birth to the king. It is a basic human tendency that he wants to rule over others. In the course of the develcj. mmi of the state, agriculture, property and wealth also progressed and this lead to war for their safety. The people started to accept powerful person as their leader. Because of power, there emerged a sense of obeisance and devotion towards the rvi:r. The people’s support made the king stronger, and thus, state was developed.

5. Ecoanomic Necessities : In the origin and the development of the state, there was as important role of people’s necessities. “Property grew by economic activities, by which people gained basic amenities such as food, house, etc. and afterwards, the origin of the state became indispensable for the security of property. “Only the state can manage the economic system of the society, and as such, people’s requirements are fulfilled”.

6. Political Awareness : Besides religion, blood, relation and social awareness, the role of political awareness is the most important in the development of the state. By political awareness, certain definite political goals have been gained. On account of population increase, and for safety to the people and their property, there was felt a necessity to form a political organization and set of rules and laws by which entire system could be governed properly. Though in the beginning, the form of political organizations and laws was not clear and mature, yet it played a decisive role in the development of the state.

Question 4.
Explain in brief the social contract theory.
Answer:
Social Contract Theory:
Social contract theory is regarded as the most important among the theories in relation to origin of the state. The birth of this theory came as a rejection of the Divine theory of the origin of the state. In 17th and 18th century, this theory had a great deal of importance.

Social contract theory is regarded as an imaginary theory. According to it, the state is not a creation of God, instead, it is a man – made institution. Its creation is the result of that social contract which was done by the people to end the natural state.

It is the conviction of the supporters of this theory that people spent their time in the lack of any state institution in an anarchic or natural state. How was the condition of people in this lawless time? Political thinkers differ on it. According to some scholars, there was an ideal state in this period, wherein people mutually behaved as per religious tenets. Other scholars think that the people were poor, sinful and burtal.

At a later stage, the people felt the necessity of a state institution on account of many reasons and then they decided to ink a contract, and as a result, there was emergence of the state. After the advent of state institution, people, on their own, accepted their subordination to the society and the state. In lieu of surrender to the state, people received the patronage of the entire society.

Historical Background and Development of the Theory:
Despite the social contract theory being a modern concept as regards origin of the state, it is very ancient with historical viewpoint. This theory (principle) gained huge support. There is a detailed description of this theory in the shanti Rarva of Mahabharata. Acharya Chanakya (Kautilya) accepted this principle in relation to the origin of state institution. There is also a reference of this theory in Jain and Buddhist literatures.

In ancient time, sophist thinkers of Greece firstly propagated this theory. They regarded the state as an artificial institution and a result of a contract agreement. Roman thinkers emphasized on the point that people are the ultimate source of monarchy. Richard Hooker, a scholar, explained this theory scientifically for the first time. Scholars Gracias and Spinoza nurtured this further.

Between 16th and 18th centuries, many scholars came to the fore in Europe who propagated this theory in a pure form, but the contribution of this theory being propagated in a scientific and systematic form goes to Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Rousseau.

Hobbes, through this principle (theory), tries to justify autocratic monarchy, whereas Locke justifies limited monarchy and Rousseau promotes popular sovereignty. According to Hobbes, each time, people came together to form the state out of fear of their lives. According to Locke, people formed the state by mutual contract in order to weed out many inconveniences. According to Rousseau, humans, in order to gain their lost freedom, formed the state by inking a contract.

Question 4.
Explain Locke’s Social Contract Theory.
Answer:
Locke’s Social Contract Theory:
The description of Locke’s social contract theory can be done with the help of the following points.
1. Human Nature:
With regard to human behaviour, Locke presents positive views. Hobbes gives recognition of savage attributes in humans. Simultaneously, he accepts human qualities also. Locke accepts a human as articulate and intelligent. According to Locke, there are attributes such as love, sympathy, mercy, cooperation, charity, etc. which are embedded in humans as humanitarian natural virtues. He derives direction of life from natural laws.

2. Natural state:
Locke has portrayed the positive side of humans in the description of natural state. According to him, natural state was the state of peace, goodwill, mutual cooperation, and safety. All the persons were equal in natural state. This was the state of freedom, not the state of licentiousness, because the people respected natural and moral rules and conventions. There was no system of ‘accepted’ explanation of natural laws. People used to analyze natural laws as per their wisdom. According to Locke, All the individuals had three rights in natural state:

• Right to life
• Right to freedom
• Right to property

3. Causes of contract:
Despite having peaceful life in natural state in accordance with natural laws, the people started facing three inconveniences

• Natural rules were not clear
• There was no institution or any unbiased judge to explain the natural laws,
• There was no power to supervise the enforcement of authorized decisions as per natural rules.

4. Form of Contract:
According to Locke, all the people came to terms and got two contracts made. In the first contract, a society was formed, ending the natural state. The second contract was between the king and the people, wherein the people authorized the ruler to frame laws, explain and enforce them. However, the king was restricted in respect of his power that the laws framed by him should be in accordance with natural laws. The formation of the state was by the second contract. If the administrator works against public interests, then the society has the right to oust him from power.

5. Characteristics of the contract:

1. Establishment of the state is as per the people’s wish. Here, the state is the result of public consensus,
2. In the process of contract for the formation of the state, there were two cor contracts in place of one. By the first contract, a society of citizens was formed by the second contract, the state was established.
3. Under the first contract, all place endicate there right not to a person or group of persons, but to the entire society.
4. In the second contra ct, the king is also a party, and as such, it is the responsibility of the king that he safeg uards the natural rights of the people.
5. The ruler is a partner of the contract and as such all conditions of the contracts are applicable upon him.
6. By the contract, there establishes a limited and benign monarchy.
7. The contract makes the distinction between the state and the government. The first is stable, whereas the second is unstable. Both are having different sets of works. In this way, this principle supports the division power.
8. This theory authorises the people, for revolution against despotic ruler.

Question 5.
Write an essay on Hobbes’ Social contract theory.
Answer:
Hobbes Social Contract Theory:
The description of Hobbes’ social contract theory on the origin of the state is given as follows with certain points:

1. Human Nature:
Basically, Hobbes regards a ‘human – being’ to be an unsocial creature. A person is selfish and quarrelsome. A person indulges in conflicts against other people, for his own pleasure and fulfilment of selfish ends. He seeks devices in lies, deception, violence, etc. to be successful in the strife. In this way, a person, by nature is inclusive of evil thoughts and deeds. There is a lack of virtues in humans. In this way, Hobbes describes the human to be rather a negative entity.

2. Natural State:
Hobbes brands the state as a natural state, which was prevalent prior to the establishment of an organised society and the state. Because of monstrous tendencies embedded in human behaviour, the natural state was very torturous, impoverished and chaotic. This state was the state of contentious war and struggle. The human life was lonely, poor, dirty, wild and unstable. In this way, Hobbes describes natural state as a state of struggle and war.

3. Reasons of contract:
In natural state, there was a fear of untimely death and insecurity to life and this forced people to end natural state for the formation of an organised political society.

4. Form of the contract:
The people, being extremely troubled by continuous struggle in natural state, invoked their, ‘wisdom’ and ‘rationality’, and formed the ‘state’ for their own safety. For the formation of this political society, every person went for contract with other persons that, “I transfer my rights of self – rule to this person or a group of persons. With the condition that you will also transfer your power of self-rule to the person or the group of persons and eschew the right of self administration”.

In this way, the people who lived in the natural state, surrendered all their rights, except the right of self-defense. In this way, by the contract, there happened the origin of a corporeal lord, called ‘Leviathan’. Prior to it, there was no society or any governance of the state. Both came into existence with the origin of Leviathan, who had supreme, unlimited autocratic power. And as such, it was branded as a sovereign ruler.

5. Characteristics of the contract:
The following are the main characteristics of Hobbes’ contract:

1. According to Hobbes, one contract materialized between people. As result of the contract, there came into existence the society and then the state simultaneously. Hobbes does not differentiate among society, state and government,
2. Hobbes’s contract was not between the king and the people, instead, it was mutually by the people
3. The king was not a party, he was a mere result of the contract. Therefore, any condition of the contract does not apply on the king. The king was autocratic,
4. The people eschewed all their rights by the contract. And hence, the people were duty-bound to obey all the orders of the king. His order was the law. He was above law
5. The contracts were both social and political. Hence out of it, there emerges, simultaneously the establishment of the society and the state for peace and arrangement,
6. The people dedicate all their rights to the ruler. They only keep the right of self defense.

6. Criticsm of the contract:
The following is the criticisms of Hobbes’ social contract theory:

1. Ex – parte explanation of human nature:
The explanation of human behaviour by Hobbes is one-sided. He has only explained human behaviour with negative portrayal, whereas a person has the feeling of charity also besides selfishness.

2. A person is a social creature, not lonely:
Hobbes regards a person as an unsocial and lonely creature, whereas in fact, a human is a social creature. A person wants to be in society on account of his nature and other necessities.

3. Imaginary picturisation of natural state:
It has been proved by research of primitive era of history that a person does not spend his life in continuous strife.

4. Imagination of the contract impossible:
According to Hobbes, a human was selfish and quarrelsome in natural state. If it were so, then of course, a contract cannot be expected by such people. There has to be a need of rationality for the contract, which was not there in the people, as per the concept of Hobbes.

5. No distinction between the state and the Government:
According to Hobbes, there is no difference between the state and the government, willough by says that there is a big fault in Hobbes’ theory that he has not differentiated between the state and the government.

6. Anti – democratic:
People do not get justice if the king has autocratic power. An individual was unhappy in anarchy, but in autocratic administration, an individual was a slave. And as such, thoughts of Hobbes are anti-democratic.

7. The State in not an artificial institution:
Hobbes, while describing the state as a result of the contract, deemed it as an artificial institution, whereas we also know that the state is a product of human behaviour. Hence, it is a natural institution.

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
The main proponents of the theory of origin of the state are:
(a) Hegel and Kant
(b) Plato, Lenin
(c) Gilchrist and Gettel
(d) Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau
Answer:
(d) Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau

Question 2.
Rousseau’s main slogan was:
(a) Move alone
(b) None – intervention
(c) Return to the nature
(d) Workers of the world, Unite
Answer:.
(c) Return to the nature

Question 3.
Autocratic monarchy is supported by:
(a) Hobbes
(b) Locke
(c) Bentham
(d) Rousseau
Answer:
(a) Hobbes

Question 4.
Rousseau’s creation is:
(a) Leviathan
(b) Social contract
(c) Das Capital
(d) The modern state
Answer:
(b) Social contract

Question 5.
A mandatory element for the development of the state is :
(a) Religion
(b) Language
(c) Provincialism
(d) Caste
Answer:
(a) Religion

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Other Important Questions and Answers

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Objective Type Questions

Question 1.
The most important theory of the origin of the state is:
(a) Social contract theory
(b) Theory of Force
(c) Divine theory
(d) Patriarchal theory
Answer:
(a) Social contract theory

Question 2.
Who out of the following explained scientifically, the social contract theory?
(a) Kautilya
(b) Aristotle
(c) Lasky
(d) Richard Hooker
Answer:
(d) Richard Hooker

Question 3.
The name of Hobbes’ creation is:
(a) Leviathan
(b) Social contract
(c) Das Capital
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(a) Leviathan

Question 4.
Who among the following scholars has described negative human behaviour?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Thomas Hobbes
(c) Richard Hooker
(d) John Locke
Answer:
(b) Thomas Hobbes

Question 5.
According to Hobbes, sovereign was:
(a) One party of the contract
(b) Result of the contract
(c) Limited democracy
(d) Answerable towards the people
Answer:
(b) Result of the contract

Question 6.
Who among of the following scholars was unable to differentiate between the state and the government in his social contract theory?
(a) Thomas Hobbes
(b) John Locke
(c) Rousseau
(d) Aristotle
Answer:
(a) Thomas Hobbes

Question 7.
According to which principle (theory) of the origin of the state, the period prior to the establishment of the state is known as natural state?
(a) Divine Theory
(b) Social contract theory
(c) Matriarchal theory
(d) Patriarchal theory
Answer:
(b) Social contract theory

Question 8.
Who propagated the autocracy of the administration ?
(a) Hobbes
(b) Locke
(c) Ricardo
(d) Plato
Answer:
(a) Hobbes

Question 9.
“The ruler is not a party, but a result of the contract.” Whose statement is it?
(a) Locke
(b) Rousseau
(c) Hobbes
(d) Aristotle
Answer:
(c) Hobbes

Question 10.
The book written by Locke is:
(a) Leviathan
(b) Social Contract
(c) Two Treatises of Government
(d) All these
Answer:
(c) Two Treatises of Government

Question 11.
As per his social contract theory, Lock supports:
(a) Autocratic monarchy
(b) Limited monarchy
(c) Lordship
(d) None of these
Answer:
(b) Limited monarchy

Question 12.
Which of the following scholars regards man as a social and rational creature?
(a) John Locke
(b) Rousseau
(c) Hobbes
(d) Malthus
Answer:
(a) John Locke

Question 13.
John Locke’s sovereign is:
(a) Government
(b) General will
(c) Political society
(d) Leviathan
Answer:
(c) Political society

Question 14.
How many contracts were there between people as per Locke?
(a) One
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Four
Answer:
(b) Two

Question 15.
Locke’s first contract forms:
(a) Society
(b) Government
(c) Both of these
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Society

Question 16.
Locke’s second contract forms:
(a) Government
(b) Society
(c) State
(d) Rights
Answer:
(c) State

Question 17.
Which of the following scholars provides the right of revolution to the people if the king becomes oppressive?
(a) Locke
(b) Rousseau
(c) Hobbes
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(a) Locke

Question 18.
Whose thought out of the following gave encouragement to liberal thought?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Locke
(c) Aristotle
(d) Hobbes
Answer:
(b) Locke

Question 19.
Whose thoughts from the following influenced the French Revolution?
(a) Locke
(b) Montesque
(c) Rousseau
(d) Plato
Answer:
(c) Rousseau

Question 20.
According to which proponent out of the following of the social contract theory, a man was ‘noble savage’ in natural state?
(a) Rousseau
(b) Locke
(c) Hobbes
(d) Maclver
Answer:
(a) Rousseau

Question 21.
Rousseau’s sovereign is:
(a) Government
(b) State
(c) Society
(d) General Will
Answer:
(d) General Will

Question 22.
Which of the following is ‘General will:
(a) Summation of ideal wills
(b) Practical will
(c) Ideal will
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Summation of ideal wills
or
(d) None of these

Question 23.
The most important element of Rousseau’s philosophy is:
(a) General Will theory
(b) Public sovereignty
(c) Divine theory
(d) Practical will
Answer:
(a) General Will theory

Question 24.
Characteristic of Rousseau’s General Will is:
(a) Integrity
(b) Indivisibility
(c) Stability
(d) All of the above
Answer:
(d) All of the above

Question 25.
The most appropriate theory of the origin of the state is:
(a) Matriarchal theory
(b) Patriarchal theory
(c) Evolutionary theory
(d) Social contract theory
Answer:
(c) Evolutionary theory

Question 26.
“The people who do not live in the society are either gods or wild animals”.This statement is related to which scholar?
(a) Aristotle
(b) Plato
(c) Jacques
(d) All the above
Answer:
(a) Aristotle

Question 27.
Which scholar’s statement is that, “Blood relation gives birth to society and society to the state”.
(a) Gilchrist
(b) Maclver
(c) Jacques
(d) Burgess
Answer:
(d) Burgess

Question 28.
The element, not related to the development of the state is:
(a) Blood Relation
(b) Religion
(c) Political Awareness
(d) Media
Answer:
(d) Media

Question 29.
The main cause of the development of state in present period is:
(a) Political awareness
(b) Economic Necessities
(c) Basic social nature
(d) Power / force
Answer:
(a) Political awareness

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Very Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Which thought was first propagated by the Sophist class of Greece ?
Answer:
Social contract theory.

Question 2.
Which scholars propagated the social contract theory in a scientific and systematic way?
Answer:
Thomas Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.

Question 3.
According to Hobbes, what is human nature?
Answer:
According to Hobbes, human behaviour is arrogant, selfish and quarrelsome.

Question 4.
According to Thomas Hobbes, how was the natural state?
Answer:
According to Thomas Hobbes, natural state was extremely painful, wild and strife-torn.

Question 5.
What is the meaning of Hobbes’ ‘Leviathan’ ?
Answer:
Hobbes’ ‘Leviathan’ is an imaginary autocratic king.

Question 6.
What’s the reason of the contract by the people, as per Hobbes?
Answer:
The contract was made by the people under the fear of death and insecurity to their life and property.

Question 7.
Which right was not dropped by the people in the social contract theory propagated by Hobbes?
Answer:
Right of Self – defense.

Question 8.
Thomas Hobbes was the supporter of which type of governance?
Answer:
Monarchy.

Question 9.
Mention two characteristics of Hobbes’ contract.
Answer:

• The contract is both-social and political,
• The contract was between the people.

Question 10.
Mention any two shortcomings of the social contract theory of Hobbes.
Answer:

• Wrong explanation of human behaviour,
• Impossible imagination of the contract.

Question 11.
Mention any two points of Hobbes’ contribution in political science.
Answer:

• Amalgamation of scientific study, philosophy, logic and wisdom
• Propagation of sovereign theory.

Question 12.
At the time of which political thinker, England’s bloodless revolution took place?
Answer:
In the time of John Locke.

Question 13.
John Locke was the supporter of which type of regime?
Answer:
Limited monarchy.

Question 14.
Which is the famous book written by John Locke?
Answer:
‘Two Treatises on Government’.

Question 15.
A human is of what type, according to John Locke?
Answer:
John Locke regards a human to be a social and rational creature.

Question 16.
Which are the natural rights of humans, according to Locke ?
Answer:

• Right to life
• Right to freedom
• Right of to property.

Question 17.
“You should behave with others the way you want others to behave with you.” This statement is related to which thinker?
Answer:
John Locke.

Question 18.
According to Locke, mention the inconveniences to the people in the natural state.
or
According to Locke, Which were the shortcomings in natural state?
or
The people desired a contract in order to get freed from which inconveniences ?
Answer:

• Vague natural rules
• Lack of impartial judge for the explanation of natural rules
• Lack of a supreme power to enforce natural rules

Question 19.
Which proponent has mentioned two contracts in this theory of social contract ?
Answer:
John Locke.

Question 20.
Mention the names of contracts described by John Locke.
Answer:

• Social contract
• Government contract

Question 21.
Mention any two characteristics of Locke’s Social contract theory.
Answer:

• Two contracts in place of one.
• Formation of state is the outcome of public consensus

Question 22.
Mention any two weaknesses of Locke’s Social contract theory.
Answer:

• One – sided explanation of human behaviour
• Wrong portrayal of natural state

Question 23.
Mention any two contributions of Locke in modern thought.
Answer:

• Expansion of the theory of natural rights
• To develop democracy on the basis of majority

Question 24.
Who presented the explanation of theory of natural rights?
Answer:
John Locke.

Question 25.
When and in which book has Rousseau propagated his democratic thoughts?
Answer:
In his creation ‘The Social Contract’ in AD 1762.

Question 26.
Who is thought to be the Father of French Revolution?
Answer:
Jean Jacques’Rousseau.

Question 27.
What title is given to humans by Rousseau in the condition of natural state?
Answer:
Noble savage.

Question 28.
“When a person is born, he is free, but afterwards, he is in chains everywhere.” Whose statement is this ?
Answer:
This is Rousseau’s statement.

Question 29.
Mention the result of Rousseau’s contract theory.
Answer:
As a result of the contract theory of Rousseau, the atmosphere of insecurity, violence and anarchy came to an end, and then the origin of the state took place.

Question 30.
What type of state is imagined by Rousseau?
Answer:
Rousseau imagines a direct democratic state.

Question 31.
Who is the proponent of the theory of General Will?
Answer:
Jean Jacques Rousseau.

Question 32.
Mention two characteristics of Rousseau’s social contract theory.
Answer:

• Positive freedom to an individual
• Formation of General will by the contract

Question 33.
Mention two shortcomings of Rousseau’s social contract theory.
Answer:

• Supports imperialism
• Wrong portrayal of natural state.

Question 34.
Which scholar makes a negative description of human nature?
Answer:
Thomas Hobbes.

Question 35.
Who describes natural state as a state of struggle and war?
Answer:
Thomas Hobbes.

Question 36.
What was Locke’s natural state?
Answer:
Locke’s natural state was a peaceful and cooperative state.

Question 37.
Which scholar describes positive and negative attributes of human nature and behaviour?
Answer:
Rousseau.

Question 38.
As per Locke, how was natural state?
Answer:
Full of peace and cooperation.

Question 39.
Which two forms of a human are accepted by Rousseau is his contract theory?
Answer:

• Individual
• Social

Question 40.
Mention any two defects of social contract theory on philosophical basis.
Answer:

• Instead of a state being an artificial institution, it is a natural institution based on human nature,
• This theory, while describing a state being the result of individual contract, encourages rebellion and anarchy.

Question 41.
Mention any two points of importance of the social contract theory.
Answer:

• The basis of the state is public consensus, not ruler
• This principle has rebutted many aspects of divine theory.

Question 42.
Which is the most important element of Rousseau’s philosophy?
Answer:
General Will theory.

Question 43.
In which two parts has Rousseau classified the wishes of an individual?
Answer:

• Practical will
• Ideal will

Question 44.
By the General will theory, the solution of which facts are presented by Rousseau?
Answer:
With the help of General Will theory, Rousseau has presented solutions to many facts, such as freedom, governance, interests, duty, individualism and completeness, etc.

Question 45.
According to Rousseau, what is practical will?
Answer:
According to Rousseau, practical will is such a will that makes a person think and act on any subject, with self interest or with the viewpoint of personal benefits.

Question 46.
Mention some characteristics of practical will.
Answer:
The practical will is emotionally dominant, selfish, impulsive, biased and irrational.

Question 47.
According to Rousseau, what is ideal will ?
Answer:
According to Rousseau, the ideal will is such a will that is meant for the welfare of the entire society. In this, social interests dominate personal interests.

Question 48.
Mention the characteristics of ideal will.
Answer:
Ideal will is society – centric, knowledge full, unselfish, pervasive, rational and moral.

Question 49.
What is Rousseau’s General Will ?
Answer:
Rousseau’s General Will is the amalgamation of all ideal wills.

Question 50.
Define General Will according to Dr. Ashirwadam.
Answer:
According to Dr. Ashirwadam, “General Will is the addition or united form of all wills of people of a society.”

Question 51.
Mention two characteristics of Rousseau’s General Will.
Answer:

• Unity in diversities
• Public welfare.

Question 52.
Mention any two shortcomings of Rousseau’s General Will.
Answer:

• Unclear and difficult
• Supports a autocracy of the state

Question 53.
Mention the importance of Rousseau’s General will.
Answer:
The thought of Rousseau’s General Will is very important for democracy, as according to Rousseau, it is the basic element of democracy.

Question 54.
Which theory of origin of the state is regarded as scientific and logical?
Answer:
Evolutionary theory.

Question 55.
“Those who do not live in the society are either gods or wild animals”. Whose statement is this?
Answer:
Aristotle.

Question 56.
What is the meaning of political awareness?
Answer:
Political awareness means awareness towards gaining the objectives of origin of the state.

Question 57.
What is the reason of development of law and judiciary system in the state?
Answer:
This is because of political awareness.

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Short Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
How was a human in the articulation of the natural state presented by Hobbes?
Answer:
Hobbes has described the natural state as the state prior or the establishment of state and society. Hobbes, in his book, has described negative behaviour and nature of an individual. According to him, a human is an unsocial creature. He is a selfish, arrogant and quarrelsome creature. He always loves power and also tries to get power. According to Hobbes, a person takes recourse to fraud and deceit in order to accomplish his motives.

Lie, deceit and enmity are his main tools. According to Hobbes, a person has some qualities also, but these are not the parts of his natural behaviour. Because of evil tendencies in one’s behaviour, the natural state was the state of continuous war and struggle. In this, every person was in a state of struggle against one another. In this way, in the natural state, human life was lonely, impoverished, difficult, wild and unsafe.

Question 2.
Explain the mutual relation between the state and an individual, according to Hobbes.
Answer:
According to Hobbes, king is autocratic. He can use his enormous power as per his whims and fancies. Hobbes does not provide any right of rebellion to any person or people against the king or the state. And as such, the people are bound to follow king’s order. The order of the king is law, but people have right of self-defense in the state. If, by any order of king or the state, there is a danger to life, then the person can revolt against the state. Because of having provided the recognition to this right of revolt, Hobbes is individualistic, despite being autocratic.

Question 3.
Mention the main characteristics of Hobbes Contract Theory.
Answer:
Main characteristic of Hobbes’s contract theory:
The following are the main characteristics of Hobbes ‘Contract theory’:

1. Simultaneous formation of state and society by the contract:
   According to Hobbes, there was only one contract between people. As a result of this agreement, there was simultaneous formation of state and society. Hobbes did not differentiate among-st society, state and government.
2. Mutual contract by the people:
   Hobbes’ contract was not between king and the people. Instead, it was among the people.
3. King is not the party to the contract, but a result of it:
   King is not a party to the contract, he is more a result of it. Hence, a conditions of the contract do not apply on the king.  The king is autocratic.
4. Renouncement of all the rights of the people and supremacy of the sovereign:
   The people renounced all their rights in accordance with the contract. Hence, the people were compelled to follow all the orders of the king. His order was the law. He was the supreme administrator. He was above law.
5. Contract Social as well as political:
   This contract was both social as well as political, therefore origin of the state took place for establishing dynamism in the society.
6.  All the rights of people handed over to the administrator:
   A person dedicates all his rights to the administrator. He retains only the right of self defense.
7. People do not have right of revolt : The order of the administrator is law. And as such, people do not have right to revolt.

Question 4.
How was the Hobbes’ Social Contract Theory criticized? Explain.
or
Explain the shortcomings of the Social Contract Theory of Hobbes.
Answer:
The following are the shortcomings of the social contract theory of Hobbes:
1. Unilateral explanation of human nature behaviour:
Hobbes has given a one sided description unilaterally of the human nature. He has presented only the negative side of human behaviour. In fact, a person also has the spirit of charity besides that of selfishness.

2. A person is a social creature, not lonely:
Hobbes thinks of a person as a lonely creature, whereas he is, in fact, a social creature. A person wants to be in the society because of his nature as well as necessity.

3. Natural State an imaginary portrayal:
It has been proved by research into primitive time of history, that a person cannot survive under the state of permanent war.

4. Impossible imagination of the contract:
As per Hobbes’ concept, a person was selfish and quarrelsome in the natural state, if so, then a hope cannot be had from such person for any contract. For any contract, rationality is required, which was not there in men, as per Hobbes.

Question 5.
Mention the contribution and importance of Hobbes’ Social Contract Theory.
Answer:
Contribution and importance of Hobbes’ Social Contract Theory:
Thomas Hobbes, the resident of England, propagated in scientific from, the social contract theory of the origin of the state. Despite many criticisms, Hobbes’ theory carries much importance in political context. Hobbes was the only such political thinker who amalgamated scientific study, philosophy, logic and wisdom in political study. Hobbes also said that the state is not god – made, but it is a man – made unit.

Its other main gifts are sovereign theory and support of autocracy of the administration. Besides, Hobbes also affirmed that the establishment of the administration is for the interest of the people. While regarding an individual as an accomplishment and a state as a means, all the works of the state should be properly operated and managed.

Question 6.
Explain human nature (behaviour) and natural state, as per John Locke.
Answer:
Human nature in accordance with John Locke : John Locke, naturally, accepts an individual to be thoughtful and intelligent. According to him, a human has human qualities, such as love, sympathy, mercy and obedience to rules. In this way, Locke makes a positive description of human nature. He regards the people as rational and peace – loving.

Portrayal off Natural State:
According to Locke, natural state was peaceful because of the people being charitable and rational. All the people were equal in the natural state. This was the state of freedom, but there was no anarchy or licentiousness, as the people complied with natural and moral rules and conventions. But people explained natural laws as per their own understanding. According to Locke, all the people, had three types of rights in the natural state:
These were:

• Right to life
• Right to freedom and
• Right to property

The people use these rights in such a way that the rights of other are not compromised. The law of that time was, “You should behave with others, the way you want others to behave with you.” In this way, according to Rousseau, this state was a state of morality, rationality and socialization.

Question 7.
Clarify the form of ‘Contract Theory’ presented by Locke.
Answer:
Contract Theory of Locke:
According to Locke, the people went for mutual contract in order to weed out inconvenience of the natural state. Locke presents two contracts:

1. Social contract:
Locke describes the first contract as a social contract. This contract was done among all the people. The society came into existence became of this contract. Its object was to secure the freedom of life, property and safety from internal and external troubles.

By this contract, every person gave his consent to drop his natural rights that he will not explain on his own the natural laws, enforce them and punish others in accordance with them. By this, every person entrusted the responsibility of security of life, freedom and property to the society and retained rest of the rights with him. Whosoever violates these rights, society would punish them.

2. Official contract:
This contract was among the state sovereign, society and the people. The formation of the state took place by this contract. The main duties of this state were to explain natural laws and enforce them. If the king or the government works against people’s interests, then the society has this right to replace him and form new government. In this way, the society provides power to its government.

Question 8.
Explain main characteristics of Locke’s Social Contract Theory.
Answer:
Main characteristics of the Social Contract Theory of Locke:
The following are the main characteristics of the Social Contract Theory of Locke:

1. The establishment of the state is by the will of the people. Hence, state is the result of public consensus.
2.  In this process, there happened to be two contracts. By the first contract, society was formed, and by the second contract, the state was established.
3.  In the first contract, all the people dedicate their rights not to an individual or group of people, but to the society.
4. In the second contract, the state is also a party. And as such, it is the responsibility of the king to protect the natural rights of the people.
5. Under the contract, a limited and dignified monarchy is established.
6. The contract clarifies the distinction between the state and the government. The first contract is stable, whereas the second contract is unstable. The duties of the both are distinct. In the way, this theory supports the principle of division of powers.
7. This contract provides the right of revolution to the people if the ruler becomes autocratic.

Question 9.
On what basis, was Locke’s Social Contract Theory criticized? Explain.
or
What are drawbacks in Locke’s Social Contract Theory? Evaluate them.
Answer:
The drawbacks / criticism of the Social Contract Theory of Locke:
The following are the main drawbacks for the criticism of Locke’s Social Contract Theory:

• Impractical portrayal of natural state:
  Locke describes the natural state as largely moral, pleasant, but the historical search into the primitive period terms this concept as unilateral. The people were not so much peaceful and ethical in the natural state.
•  Defective explanation of natural rights:
  Locke talks about the existence of rights of property and freedom to life in the natural state, whereas it seems merely an imagination of existence of rights prior to political society.
• Unilateral explanation of human behaviour:
  Locke sees only the goodness of human behaviour, while both the negative elements-selfishness and charity are also found in it.
• Legal sovereignty not recognized:
  Locke accepts the importance of political sovereignty, but does not recognize the principle of legal sovereignty.

Question 10.
Explain the contribution of Locke’s Social Contract Theory in modern thought.
Answer:
The contribution of Locke’s Social Contract Theory in modern thought:
John Locke was a major political thinker of England. In his time, there happened the bloodless or Glorious Revolution in England. He described limited monarchy as the best system of administration. His famous creation is ‘Two Treatises on Government’. He propagated the social contract theory of the origin of the state. Despite facing criticism, Locke’s theory has given important contribution in the modern thought, which is mentioned here:

• It propagated the principle of natural rights, which paved the way for the formation of fundamental rights in this modern period
• By propagating the principle of public consensus, it developed the concept of democracy on the basis of majority in modern time,
• These thoughts provided force to the liberal thought
• By the principle (theory) of limited monarchy, Montesqueu, the French thinker, could come out with the theory of power segregation.

Question 11.
Clarify Rousseau’s natural state.
or
Explain the concept of ‘natural state’ propagated by Rousseau.
Answer:
‘Natural state’ propagated by Rousseau:
Rousseau divides natural state into two phases:
1. First Phase:
In the first phase, the person was not conversant with the knowledge of selfishness and charity, and as such, he was free. His life was simple, and necessities were limited. In this state, an individual was happy, content, self reliant. Innocence was his basic attribute. He neither deceived fraud, nor cheated. He was unknown to the knowledge of morality. Rousseau describes this state of human as ‘noble savage’.

2. Second phase:
According to Rousseau, the above – mentioned natural state cannot last longer. Gradually, it deteriorated. The main reason of the fall was rise of private property. This made a person selfish and the goodness of the natural state ended. As a result, there emerged selfishness, violence, strife and malice. By virtue of the end of freedom and self-reliance, human life became unsafe.

Question 12.
Clarify the form of ‘Social Contract theory’ propagated by Rousseau.
Answer:
The form of ‘Social Contract Theory’ propagated by Rousseau:
Rousseau, in his social contract theory, regards two forms of an individual – personal and social. According to Rousseau, when struggle and war started in the natural state, the people started to ponder as to how to save themselves from these terrific circumstances. As a result, the people voluntarily ended the natural state and decided to establish a civic society. Under the contract, the people voluntarily surrendered their rights to the society.

As result of the contract, there developed a General Will in the society and all the people started working in accordance with the General Will. As every person is a member of the society, and hence, by virtue of the contract, he becomes a part of the formed society and hence stands eligible to get back all his rights from his social worth.

As a result of the contract, insecurity, violence anarchy, etc. ends, and the origin of the state takes place. Rousseau promotes the concept of apparent democratic state, wherein entire slew of powers get cent-red in the name of General Will in the society. If the government works against the General will of society, then the people have the right to dismiss it.

Question 13.
Mention four main characteristics of Rousseau’s social contract theory.
Answer:
Main characteristics of Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory. The following are the main characteristics of Social Contract theory of Rousseau:
1. Two forms of an individual under the contract:
Under the social contract theory of Rousseau, two forms of an individual are apparent – personal and collective. In personal capacity, he entrusts all his rights to the society and gets these rights back in the capacity of being member of the society, which he gave up at the time of the contract.

2. No impact on the freedom of an individual:
By the contract, there is no impact on the freedom of an individual. Instead, a person gets positive liberty.

3. Formation of General Will:
General Will is formed by the contract. That is, the sovereign, the government and all the people of the society have to follow its order. None has the right to violate the order.

4. Only a social contract:
Rousseau mentions only social contract. He does not describe any political contract.

Question 14.
Mention the defects of Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory.
Answer:
Defects of Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory:
The following are the main defects of Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory:

1. Natural state – imaginary:
   The natural state, which Rousseau portrays, is not in accordance with evidence of history, rather it is imaginary. It has been made clear by historical research that was not peaceful in natural state.
2.  Mutually contradictory:
   According to Rousseau, the contract is inked between personal and social aspects of the individual, when there was no society, then where did the social side come from?
3. Supportive of Imperialism:
   Rousseau’s General Will hints at dictatorship, which is not proper. Under such an administration, there is a possibility of oppression towards the people.
4. Dual State of an individual:
   Rousseau provides dual personality to the ruler. Besides being a sovereign, he is also order complaint. This makes the position of the sovereign untenable.

Question 15.
Compare the thoughts of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau in respect of human nature.
Answer:
Hobbes makes a negative description of human nature (behaviour). According to him, a human is inspired by cruelty, selfishness, violence, fear and greed for power, and he is dominated by monstrous tendencies. The reasons of savage tendencies in a person are competitiveness, distrust and greed of power. He regards a person as a reservoir of bad qualities.
Locke makes positive description of human nature.

He thinks a person to be rational and peaceful. Locke’s natural man is filled with decency, mercy, cooperation, charity, etc. He embraces the directives of life from the natural laws. Rousseau makes both-positive as well as negative descriptions of human nature. According to Rousseau, in the beginning, human was naturally decent.

He was a noble savage, but while progressing towards civilization, he developed the spirit of distinctions with the rise of private property. In is quite clear from the above details that, while Hobbes describes the human as selfish, violent and cruel, Locke and Rousseau regard the human to be pure and decent.

Question 16.
Make a comparison of thoughts of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau on the Natural State.
Answer:
Comparison of the related thoughts of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau on the Natural State:
According to Hobbes, because of monstrous tendencies embedded in human behaviour, the natural state was extremely painful, impoverished and strife – torn. This was the state of continuous struggle and war. In this state of affairs, every individual was at undeclared war with others. The powerful persons tortured the weak people. Violence was prevalent everywhere and there was lack of morality.

According to Locke, because of the people being charitable and rational, the natural state was peaceful. All the people were equal. People followed natural laws and tenets of morality. Natural rights of life, freedom and property, etc. were in practice. In this way, natural state was completely moral, social and duty compliant.

According to Rousseau, natural state was an ideal state. In this state, people lead a life of eternal pleasure. The people were not selfish, but this natural state could not last for long. The desire of family and private property developed in the people. With the rise of private property, there came an end to the natural state of equality and freedom.

Question 17.
Mention the reasons of contracts made by the human in natural state, according to Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.
Answer:
Causes of the contracts made by humans in the natural state, as per Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. According to Hobbes, on account of continuous struggle and strife, man wanted safety of his life and property. Hence, he was compelled to enter into the contract for the safety and security of his life and property.

According to Locke, in order to define natural laws in the natural state, enforce them and also to remove the lack of governance of justice and to demand and secure the rights of property, the contract was made. According to Rousseau, when there erupted strife and war in the natural state, then to get rid of this, the people opted for the contract with an aim to end the natural state, provide safety to life and property and also to mold the society into ideal form.

Question 18.
Criticize Social Contract Theory on philosophical basis.
Answer:
Criticism of Social Contract Theory on philosophical basis:
The criticism of the Social Contract Theory can be done on philosophical basis in the following way:
1. Membership of the state not optional:
According to this theory, the state has been defined as such an organization whose membership is optional; but in fact, the membership of the state is not optional, instead it is mandatory. In this context, this principle is defective.

2. State not an artificial institution:
According to this theory, the state is the creation of people, whereas the state is a natural institution based on human behaviour. The state is the result of natural social tendencies of the people.

3. Encouragement to rebellion and anarchy:
This principle, while describing the state as a result of personal contracts, incites people for rebellion and anarchy.

4. Implementation of natural rights not possible:
For the implementation of rights, existence of power is a must. It is not possible to implement natural rights without use of coercive force.

Question 19.
Criticize the ‘Social Contract Theory’ on legal basis.
Answer:
Criticism of Social Contract theory on legislative (legal) basis:
On legal basis, the criticism of the Social Contract Theory is given below:

1. Contract in natural state not possible:
Any contract is only recognized when the state recognizes it and accepts the onus to implement it, but the so-called contract was done, when the state was not in existence.

2. Contract – injustice to the future generations:
In legal perspective, the contract is binding only when it is accepted by choice, but under social contract, many generations down the line were automatically bound by its conditions, whether they liked it or not. Therefore, the contract was defective.

Question 20.
Mention any four characteristics of the concept of ‘General Will’ propagated by Rousseau.
Answer:
Main characteristics of the concept of ‘General Will’ by Rousseau:
The main characteristics of Rousseau’s General Will are as given below:

1. Public welfare:
General Will is public welfare. This is a blend of ideals wills and desires. According to Rousseau, the General Will is always good and it is for the welfare of all the people.

2. Integrity:
There is no mutual conflict in the General Will. There is unity in diversity.

3. Stable:
General Will is not the result of momentary and instantaneous impulses, instead, it is a stable tendency of human welfare

4. Indivisible:
According to Rousseau, ‘General Will’ cannot be segregated. As a living creature cannot divide itself without ending its existence, similarly, General Will cannot be divided in political society.

Question 21.
Mention any four defects of General Will theory of Rousseau.
Answer:
Defects of Rousseau’s General Will Theory:
The following are the main shortcomings of the ‘General will’ theory of Rousseau:

1. Blurred and difficult:
Rousseau’s idea of General Will is difficult to understand and unclear. Rousseau thinks the truth as General Will, but it is not explained as to who would decide the truth. How exactly ‘General Will’ shall be decided, is also not clear.

2. Difference between practical will and ideal will imaginative:
Both, the tendencies of personal selfishness and public interests are found in an individual. These are not segregated. Which will is ideal and which one is ‘General’, it is difficult to find out.

3. Explanation of General Interest Difficult:
In General Will theory, it is difficult to find out as to which work is for general interest and which one is against it.

4. Direct Democracy not appropriate:
‘General Will’ establishes direct democracy, which is not appropriate for big countries having large populations.

Question 22.
Clarify the importance of Rousseau’s General Will theory.
Answer:
Importance of General Will theory of Rousseau:
Despite criticism, Rousseau’s General Will theory has its importance in politics, which is described below:

1.  Important for Democracy:
Rousseau’s thought of ‘General Will’ is important for democracy. It establishes the fact that the basis of administrative governance is public acceptance. There should be explicit cooperation of the people in the formation of laws. The government should always be answerable to the people. Mackerel, a political thinker, says correctly, that the use of ‘General Will’ changes an administration (government) into self government.

2. Inspiration of nationalism:
General Will theory provides inspiration for nationalism. This gave rise to the conviction that mutual unity, good behaviour and spirit of cohesion make life better. These qualities carry the true essence of life.

3. Importance to the individual and the society:
Rousseau’s ‘General Will’ theory provides importance to both, the individual as the well as the society.

4. Extension of theory of organic unity:
Rousseau’s General Will theory propagates the principle of organic unity.

Question 23.
“There has been a great deal of importance of economical necessities of the people in the origin and development of the state”. Clarify this statement.
Answer:
In the origin and development of the state, economic necessities have played a very significant role. Gettel says that, “Economic activities, by which the people got the basic amenities, such as food, housing etc. and later on collected property and liquidity, were important factors in the formation of the state.” With the rise of private property, the origin of the state became quite mandatory for its safety.

It is the state which operates the economic system of the society, and in this, necessary needs of the people are taken care of. The state is the only solution to the interest and conflicts of the different classes of the society. For the sake of these interests, the state came into existence. Plato, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, etc. also supported this idea.

Question 24.
What is political awareness? Mention the contribution of political awareness in the development of state.
Answer:
Meaning of political awareness:
Political awareness means awareness towards fulfillment of the objectives behind the creation of the state. Contribution of political awareness in the development of the state:
Besides religion, blood – relation and social awareness, the most important factor in the development of the state is political awareness. By this political awareness only, certain definite political goals can be achieved. Because of safety to the people, security to the property and also to decide the relations of families due to the rising population, such it was felt that such political organizations and laws should be formed which could manage the system.

As the human society developed, their necessities and complexities also increased in proportion. The resolution of all these issues became possible through political awareness. The system of rules and laws developed due to political awareness. In present time also, political law is the main ingredient for the development of the state.

RBSE Class 11 Political Science Chapter 8 Essay Type Questions

Question 1.
Perform a critical evaluation of thoughts of ‘Social Contract Theory’ of the origin of the state.
Answer:
Social Contract Theory of origin of State:
Social Contract’ theory as regards origin of state is thought to be an imaginary principle. According to it, the formation of the state was based on the mutual contract among the people living in the natural state. The main founding scholars of this theory are Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. They have enlisted this principle in distinct forms based on human nature, natural state, the cause of contract, nature of contract, the result of contract.

Main characteristics of Social Contract Theory:
The following are the main characteristics of the Social Contract Theory, as proposed by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau:
1. Explanation of human nature:
All the there thinkers, Hobbes, Locke and and Rousseau, have described the human nature prior to the analysis of the natural state, and on the basis of this, they have portrayed the natural state. Locke and Rousseau termed the human as having good nature, but at the same time, Hobbes describes the human as being selfish, peevish and arrogant.

2. Imagination of condition of natural state:
The state is not a perpetual institution. It is not omnipresent in its existence. All the three scholars, Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, have portrayed the state (condition) prior to the origin of the state, which they have named the ‘Natural state’.

3. Causes of contract:
Stateless ‘Natural state’ was not beneficial for the interests of the people. Locke and Rousseau had initially described the natural state as decent and peaceful, but later on, it became strife-torn and anarchic due to infusion of some selfish tendencies, etc. Now, people wanted to get rid of them.

4. Social contract theory:
In order to get freed from the natural state, all the people went for the social contract on the basis of equality and with mutual consensus and cooperation. In this way, the people in the natural state formed the civic society in a planned way, ending the natural state.

5. Result of contract:
The ‘Civic society’ is different from its prior state of ‘Natural state’ in a way that in civic society, the state is present and the management of the society in done by sovereignty. It was imagined in the social contract that the formation of the state is done with the purpose of serving the interests of all the people.

Criticism of Social Contract Theory:
After remaining popular for two centuries, this theory was negated and its criticism started on historical, philosophical, logical and legal bases. The criticism of the social contract theory can be done on the following bases:

1. Criticism on historical basis:
Many scholars have criticized the social contract theory on historical basis. Hume, the British philosopher, said that no proof is found about this contract in the primitive state. Another scholar, Green, termed it as ‘fantasy’, Whereas Henriman termed it as ‘rubbish’. Most of the scholars believe this principle imaginative and non – certified. According to them, this theory unilaterally defines human nature, and that, state is a result of development, not of creation.

2. Criticism on philosophical basis:
Different scholars have criticized the social contract theory on philosophical basis, as this principle expects imagination of a state by such an organization whose membership is optional, whereas, in fact, the membership of the state is mandatory. The state is not an artificial institution, instead, it is a natural institution based on natural human tendency. This theory incites rebellion and anarchy.

3. Criticism on legal basis:
Many scholars have criticized this theory on legal basis. According to them, this theory does not hold ground on legal basis. If people are going to have a contract in the natural state, then it is wrong in legal terms, because to award legal recognition to the contract, there has to exist a state for its acceptance. There was no ‘State’ in the natural state. The contract is enforced on them who ink it, and therefore, this contract is not acceptable in eye of the legal premise.

Question 2.
Perform a critical analysis of the Social Contract Theory of Jean Jacques Rousseau.
Answer:
The Social Contract Theory of Jean Jacques Rousseau:
Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland. Like Hobbes and Locke, he was also a supporter of the social contract theory. Rousseau, in respect of origin of state, has endeavored to present a mixed form of thoughts of Hobbes and Locke in the social contract theory. Rousseau was a supporter of democracy, but he was a strong opponent of the divine rights of kings.

This thought made a deep impression on the French revolution in 1789, and as such, he is called the father of this revolution. Rousseau had described his social contract theory with the help of the following points:

1. Human Behaviour (Nature):
In respect to human nature, Rousseau has quite distinct thoughts from the ones of Hobbes and Locke. Rousseau has regarded the to be always innocent and ingenuous. According to him, freedom and self – reliance are his special natural traits. He is free from jealousy, worry, arrogance, etc. A human is decent and unselfish and gets influenced by emotions, instead of logic.

2. Natural state:
Rousseau divides the natural state into two steps,

• First step
• Second step

In the first step, because of being selfless and charitable, the human was free. In the second step, with the advent of private property, man became selfish. In this phase, selfishness, violence, strife, jealousy, etc. and similar other vices crept into human psyche.

3. Form of the contract:
When there began struggle and war in the natural state, the people became unhappy and started thinking of some means to get rid of these circumstances. At last, the people decided to establish a civic society, ending the natural state. Under the contract, all the people handed over their rights to the society. As a result of the contract, a ‘General Will’ emerged for the entire society and all persons started working in accordance with the ‘General Will’.

4. Characteristics of the contract:
The following are the main characteristics of the contract:

(1) Two forms of an individual under the contract:
There appear two forms: individual and social, of a person under the contract. Ip individual capacity, a person dedicates all his rights to the society and by virtue of being a member of the society, he gets back all the rights, which he had abdicated in the contract.

(2) Contract does not impede the freedom of an individual:
Instead of imposing any restriction on the freedom of an individual, it supports freedom.

(3) Formation of General Will:
‘General Will’ is formed by the contract. It is sovereign. The government and all the people of the society comply with it. None is authorized to oppose it.

(4) ‘General Will’ always appropriate:
‘General Will’ is always rational, and therefore, it is the supreme duty of all the people to work in accordance with the “General Will’.

(5) Obtaining of Social freedom by the contract:
Natural freedom comes to an end by the contract and ‘social freedom’ takes its place. An individual who loses natural freedom though the contract, gets social liberty and ownership over his things m lieu.

(6) Only one, social contract:
Rousseau describes only the social contract, not the political contract. Hence, an entirely sovereign society is formed on “General Will”.

5. Right to oust the Government:
The government responsible in the formation of General Will can be ousted if it becomes autocratic and irresponsible.

Criticism of Rousseau’s Contract Theory:
1. Natural state – imaginary:
The natural state, which has been portrayed by Rousseau, is not in accordance with history. It is quite imaginary. It has been established by the historical research that the people were not peaceful in the natural state.

2. Mutually contradictory:
According to Rousseau, the contract is inked between individual and society, whereas there was no society at that time. Where did the social side come from?

3. Supporter of Imperialism:
Rousseau’s General Will hints at dictatorial rule, which is not proper. In this administration, there is a great possibility of the people to be oppressed.

4. Dual persona of an individual:
Rousseau provides dual persona of a person. The person, besides being the ruler, is also obedient. In this way, the situation of a ruler becomes untenable.

5. State is a result of development, not of contract:
Rousseau believes that the state is formed as a result of social contract. In fact, state is a result of development though a long period of time. It is not the result of any imaginary and non-historical pact.

6. Importance of the theory:
Rousseau’s social contract theory carries a great degree of importance. His ‘General Will’ theory has influenced the development of modern era. Public dissent and democratic thoughts impacted the system of that time to extent, that there erupted the French revolution, and it also developed the principle of fraternity.

Question 3.
Compare ‘Social Contract Theory’ related thoughts of Thomas Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.
or
Make a comparative study of various social contract theories.
Answer:
Comparison of thoughts of Social Contract Theory of Thomas Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau. All the three scholars Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau have propagated Social Contract Theory of origin of the state in their own way and as such, distinction is found in their analysis. The comparison of their thoughts can be done under the following heads:

1. Comparison on the basis of portrayal of human nature:
(i) Hobbes:
According to Hobbes, human nature was cruel, selfish, violent and inspired by fear and greed of power. He was dominated by wild tendencies. He was quarrelsome by nature. Hobbes terms a human as the mine of vices.

(1) Locke:
According to Locke, human nature was good, merciful, cooperative, charitable and full of liberal emotions. Locke makes a positive description of human behaviour. He regards an individual to be rational and peaceful.

(2) Rousseau:
According to Rousseau, in the beginning, human nature was, in fact, decent. He was a noble savage, but in due course, he developed mentality of “that is yours and this is mine.” Rousseau calls a human naive and sinless, but also calls him impulsive and wild. It is quite clear that Hobbes calls a human selfish, lonely, quarrelsome, but Locke and Rousseau call him summarily decent.

2. Distinction on the basis of portrayal of natural state:
(1) Hobbes:
According to Hobbes, the natural state was full of undeclared war and unpredictability. There was a presence of violence and lack of morality. In this state, the powerful persons used to oppress the weaker ones.

(2) Locke:
Locke says that the natural state was quite contrary to what has been decided by Hobbes. All the people used to spend their lives in accordance with the natural laws. The state was full of morality, rationality and social cohesion.

(3) Rousseau:
Rousseau also describes the natural state as being full of bliss and happiness. This state was without conflict. Human needs were limited. He had no fear nor worry. In this way, it is quite clear that the thoughts of Hobbes about the natural state were quite to different from those of Locke and Rousseau.

3. Comparison in relation to causes of the contract:

• Hobbes:
  In order to end the anarchy born out of continuous struggle in the natural state, and also for the safety of life, the people got compelled to enter into the contract.
• Locke:
  In order to explain the natural laws in the natural state, enforce them and also to wipe out the lack of governance for delivery of justice, the contract was made.
• Rousseau:
  In order to wipe out the conflict arising out of the rise of personal property in the natural state, for the safety of life and also for re – creating the ideal shape to the society, the social contract was inked.

4. Distinction on the basis of form of the contract:

• Hobbes:
  According to Hobbes, the people went for the contract only for the formation of the state. In this, a person dedicates all his right to the ruler, except the rights of self defense.
• Locke:
  According to Locke, the contracts were of two types – by the first contract, state or society was formed, and by the second contract, the state was established.
• Rousseau:
  According to Rousseau, ‘General Will’ was formed by the contract.

5. Distinction on the basis of sovereignty:

• Hobbes:
  Hobbes supports autocratic monarchy. In Hobbes’s contract, king is not a party to the contract, but he is the result of the contract. As such, revolution cannot be dared against the king or the sovereign.
• Locke:
  Locke supports limited monarchy. In Locke’s second contract, sovereign (government) is a party to the contract and it is bound with the conditions of the contract. In case, it does not comply with the conditions, the society can expel it.
• Rousseau:
  Rousseau supports democracy and asks for ‘public welfare will’ to be sovereign, which he terms ‘General Will’. This ‘General Will’ resides in the people.

6. Comparison on the basis of power transfer:
Hobbes goes for complete transfer of governance of an individual. Locke proposes a limited transfer of power of the governance of the person, whereas Rousseau prefers to change the form of governance of an individual.

Question 4.
Clarify the form of social contract according to Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.
Answer:
Form of Social Contract according to Thomas Hobbes:
According to Thomas Hobbes, because of the situation of continuous struggle in the natural state, the people formed the state for their self – defense, applying their ‘wisdom and ‘rationality’. According to Hobbes, all people assemble and work out a contract that, “I dedicate my all rights to the administrator or the group and you too dedicate yours to them.”

As a result of the agreement, the people dedicate all their rights to the administrator, except the right of self-defense. This contract is autocratic and indecorous. As this contract is not between the administrator and the people, hence it is merely a social contract, not a political one.

By this contract, there originates a ‘corporeal lord’, called ‘Leviathan’. Prior to it, there was no governance of state or society. These both came into existence because of this only. Leviathan was having supreme rights. And therefore, it can be called as sovereign or “all powerful administrator.”

Form of Social Contract, according to John Locke:
According to John Locke, in natural state, the people opted for two contracts for protecting themselves from different types of inconveniences:

• Social contract
• Political contract.

According to Locke, the first contract established the society ending natural state. The second contract was between the king and the people. By this, the people authorised the king to frame rules, and enforce them. If the administrator goes against the public interest, then the society has the right to remove the administrator, and transfer the power of governance to any other.

Form of Social Contract according to Jean Jacques Rousseau:
According to Jean Jacques Rousseau, when there erupted strife and war in the natural state, then the people decided to establish civic society be ending the natural state, and for that, they went for mutual contract. Rousseau, in his theory, regards two forms of an individual: personal and social.

According to Rousseau, the people make contract between their personal capacity and social capacity for getting out of the natural state. In personal capacity, a person abdicates his freedom and other rights and gets them back again in social capacity. As a result of the contract, General Will originated. All the people work under the ‘General Will’. Every person puts his persona and complete power under the ‘General Will’ and he gets back his persona and power in a collective form.

Question 5.
On what basis Rousseau’s ‘General Will Theory’ is criticized? Explain in detail.
Answer:
The most important element of Rousseau’s political philosophy is the principle of ‘General Will’. During the origin of the state, the people abdicate their powers to the community by the contract, and by this, his personal Will’ is replaced by a ‘General will’. With the help of his theory, Rousseau has presented solution of freedom, answerability of the governance, individualism and completeness, etc. The general will paves the way for public sovereignty and democracy. Rousseau has described two wills of a person:

• Practical will
• Ideal will.

Practical will is such a ‘will’ when an individual acts in personal interests and with the spirit of selfishness. Ideal will is such a will which per forms welfare of the entire society. In the ideal will, an individual regards his interests as part of social interests.

According to Rousseau, whenever a question or issue arises before the people, every person thinks as per his way of logic and interacts with other. By way of the exchange of thoughts, the people get over their selfish will and mindset and hence ‘General Will’ is formed.

Rousseau’s General Will’ theory can be criticized through the following points:

• Unclear and difficult:
  Rousseau’s thought of ‘General Will’ is impractical and unclear. Rousseau thinks truth as the general will, but he does not explain who is to decide the truth. How ‘General Will’ is to be decided is also not clear.
• Difference of practical will and ideal will imaginary:
  In an individual, both the tendencies of self interest and public interest are found. These cannot be segregated. It is very difficult to conclude as to which ‘will’ is practical and which one is ideal.
• Explanation of General interest difficult:
  In General Will theory, it is difficult to find as to which act is of general interest or otherwise.
• Direct democracy not appropriate:
  ‘General Will’ establishes direct democracy, which is not suitable for big countries.
• Imaginary theory:
  This principle seems more imaginary and less practical. The concept of Rousseau that the ‘General Will’ is originated thought exchange of thoughts, seems farcical.
• Saviour of autocracy of the state:
  Rousseau’s ‘General Will’ will be decided by the administrator. The administration will try to impose its  will under the garb of general will and then resort to oppression.
• Opponent of personal freedom:
  Rousseau’s General Will’ cannot be objected to. In this state of affairs, none can oppose it. This will result in curtailment of personal freedom.

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